Since early geological history the land surface of Armenia, and the surrounding Armenian plateau, has been mountainous, with further mountain building occurring during the Cenozoic era (particularly after the Miocene). These complex tectonic shifts have resulted in a country dominated by a by a series of mountain massifs and valleys. The tectonic movements which created the series of folded ridges which dominate the country, also resulted in extensive volcanic activity. The climatic changes over the last million years have also left their mark on the country, with evidence of two glacial periods (Riss and Wurm) preserved on almost all mountains over 3000m.

Four main geographic/geological regions can be recognised within Armenia (Map 2), including:

· Mountainous ridges and valleys in the north-east of the country (highest altitude 3101m), which occur mainly in the basin of the River Kur (including the ranges of Virahajots, Bazumi, Pambak, Gougarats, Aregouni, and Sevan) and which are subject to extensive erosion.
· Regions of volcanic origin within Asia Minor, including the mountain ranges of Ashotsk, Aragats, Geghama, Vardenis, Sunik and Mount Aragats (4095m). These areas are covered by lava of relatively recent origin (upper Pliocene). Such regions are characterised by gentle slopes, and little evidence of erosion, although larger rivers have carved out deep gorges and canyons.
· A series of ridged mountains adjacent to the River Arax (ridges on the left bank along with the Urts-Eranossian, Teksar, Vaik, and Zangezour mountain ranges, including the peak of Kapoutdjugh at 3094m) constitute the Minor Caucasian system. This area is prone to intense erosion.
· The Ararat Valley represents the lowest part of the Ararat depression (which is still undergoing tectonic movement). This area is covered with alluvial and prolluvial sediments.

As previously stated, Armenia is generally mountainous, with the lowest point being 375m above sea level (near the Debed River in the north of the country) and the highest recorded point being at 4095m (northern peak of Mount Aragats; Map 3). Overall, the average altitude across the country is 1850m, but the variations in altitude (up to 3700m, but more generally 1500-2000m; Table 1.1) have important effects on the climatic and landscape zones within the country.

Table 1.1 Absolute altitude range of territory of Republic of Armenia

Altitude above sea level (m) Area (km2) %

Furthermore, the position and gradient of slopes have important implications for the distribution of biodiversity in the country. The steepest slopes found are within mountain folds, but in contrast, over 74% of the land (21, 000 km2) consists of slopes of up to 120, which are generally under cultivation. Among the ridged mountains and valleys of the Minor Caucasus, most forests occur on north-facing slopes