As well as its rich biodiversity, Armenia is characterised by intensive human impacts affecting ecosystems and species. Threats to natural systems include: 1) habitat loss and modification; (2) over-use of biological resources; (3) pollution; (4) effects of introduced, non-native species; and (5) climate change. A wide number of sectors use or affect natural resources, either directly or indirectly, and therefore also threaten Armenian biodiversity. The impact of each of these sectors on biodiversity is discussed below.

Agriculture

Agriculture remains the largest sector in Armenia, and almost half of the total land area is devoted to agricultural use. As such agriculture is a key sector for natural resource use and has caused much damage to biodiversity. Key impacts from agriculture include:

· Habitat change and destruction of natural ecosystems.
· Over-grazing (affecting vegetation composition of pastures).
· Land degradation (including compaction of soils and increased salinity) and reduction in productivity.
· Pesticide use and soil pollution.
· Soil erosion (and increased risks of landslides).
· Pollution of water sources.
· Increased spread of disease through livestock populations.

Pastures represent around half the agricultural land, and have been severely degraded by over-grazing. As a result, productivity of pasture has declined, vegetation has changed (including loss of valuable fodder species), soil has been compacted and erosion is prevalent on many hillsides.

Around 600,000ha of land is cultivated in Armenia, although reduced productivity and erosion have led to the abandonment of some areas on hillsides. Over the last 70 years, there has been increased conversion of semi-desert, steppe and wetland habitats for cultivation, resulting in the loss of some important sites, and increased threats to species. For example the amphibians and reptiles of the Arax valley are now threatened as a result of habitat loss, while the diversity and populations of breeding birds has reduced as their food sources have been cleared. Unregulated irrigation of land has further consequences. For example, salinity has increased dramatically in 24,000ha of land in the Ararat valley. Factors such as salinity, soil compaction and overuse of fertilisers and pesticides has had a negative effect on the soil organisms, which ensure soil fertility.

Prior to 1992 over 75% of agricultural land was owned by State or collective farms. However, the land has since been privatised and divided between 130,000 farms, as well as a number of non-agricultural organisations. Privatisation and land ownership has resulted in new legal and social conditions relating to land use. It is not clear how this will affect biodiversity - difficult economic conditions and lack of resources for farming have acted to reduce the intensity of agriculture. However, the absence of effective regulations for the use of private lands could result in even greater environmental impacts in the future.

Forestry

Forest cover in Armenia is around 10%, and forests are mainly found on steep mountain slopes where they have an important role in soil protection. Loss of forests has a number of effects on biodiversity and natural ecosystems:

· Loss and change of forest habitats.
· Increased erosion with loss of tree cover.
· Increased silting and eutrophication of water bodies.
· Collapse of natural hydrological systems associated with forests.
· Gradual forest succession as a result of changed water balance (from primary forest, to secondary growth, to scrubland and eventually to desert).

The extensive deforestation during the energy crisis of the early 1990s (see section 2.2.4) resulted in the loss of most forests close to towns and cities. Since then, in recognition of the important ecological and functional roles of forests, commercial clearance of forests has been banned. Selective logging is conducted for forest health and to encourage regeneration. However, illegal logging of forests is extensive, and grazing and hay production in forest areas is common. As a result, productivity and regeneration of forests are declining, species composition has changed and erosion has increased. In these conditions, populations of pest species have increased, while many bird and mammal species associated with forests have become threatened. The knock-on effects of forest loss have become apparent through increased erosion leading to flooding and landslides. Extensive flood damage has affected a number of regions including Tavush, Sunik and Lori.

Industry

Extensive industrial growth took place in Armenia between the 1920s and the 1980s, with the development of more than 200 industrial sites, including a number of gigantic industrial plants. Over this time, industrial development increased GDP by a factor of 1,000. However, industrial development therefore had significant effects on the ecosystems and biodiversity of the country, including:

· Habitat loss as a result of construction.
· Degradation of natural habitats.
· Pollution of soils, water and air.
Prior to the economic crisis, substantial levels of pollution were recorded from the country's industrial centres, totalling around 245,000 tonnes annually (54,400 tonnes of solid particles and 190,900 tonnes of liquid or gaseous emissions). This included around 50 different pollutants, including sulphate anhydride (58%), nitric oxides (15%) and oxides of carbon (14%). At present only a small proportion of industries remain operational (10-30%) and emissions of pollutants have dropped dramatically to 15,000-20,000 tonnes per year. However, pollution continues to have negative impacts on both natural ecosystems and agricultural lands in the country. Of great concern is the continued release of chemical waste, gaseous emissions and heavy metals from key industrial sites. Examples include:

· The Allaverdi metal factory, where the heavy metal content of cultivated plants is 20-40 times greater than standard limits.
· Degradation of 703ha of forests around the Vanadzor chemical plant as a result of emissions of nitrogen-containing compounds (such as ammonia and nitric oxides).
· Crop damage and plant mutations as a result of the release of chlorides and flourides from the Narit factory.
· Natural and agricultural ecosystems affected by dust emitted by the Ararat and Hrazdan cement factories.

Mining

Armenia is rich in mineral resources, and supports an extensive mining industry. Over 130 mining enterprises operate in Armenia, of which all but four involve open-cast mining. Mining operations affect an area of 9,700ha, including 8,275ha which have undergone direct disturbance, and 1,400ha covered by tailings or slag. Many mines are situated at relatively high altitudes (including copper and gold mines at between 2,000 and 2,500m), and thus represent a direct threat to fragile mountain ecosystems, and also affect lowland habitats downstream from such mines.

Mining affects the biodiversity of the country as a result of:

· Large scale habitat destruction through open-cast mining.
· Impacts of tailings and other deposits on ecosystems.
· Pollution of rivers and groundwater.

Of particular concern are a number of tailings from extractive and processing operations, totalling around 220 million m3, which remain in Armenia. There is a high risk that pollutants from these tailings may leach into water systems.

Energy

All forms of power generation (hydro-electric, thermal and nuclear) affect biodiversity in some way, as does the electrical transmission network across the whole country. Impacts include:

· Thermal pollution (including of water used as a coolant) and air pollution (particulate and gaseous).
· Effects of construction of power plants on the site.
· Local changes in vegetation in the vicinity of power plants.
· Local habitat disruption through the erection of high voltage power lines (particularly on mountain steppes where vast areas of forest have been felled to erect such lines).
· The electromagnetic field from power lines may lead to changes in the plant and animal communities in the direct vicinity.

The impacts of the energy sector on biodiversity have become clear since the 1950s. At that time the development of hydroelectric power plants on the River Hrazdan using increasing outflow from Lake Sevan, which resulted in a 19m decrease in the water level of the lake. This decline had extensive impacts on the lake and its biodiversity, including changes in chemical balance, loss of species and eutrophication (see section 2.2.4).

Hydro-electric plants also affect biodiversity locally, within the rivers on which they were built. Effects include changes in biodiversity in both feeder channels and areas downstream of outlets, and in artificial reservoirs designed to regulate flow. Changes in water flow have also resulted in the aridisation of some areas where water has been channelled off for use by power plants.

Construction

Construction work has increased dramatically in Armenia over the last half century, in line with industrial development and human population growth. Around 90,000 ha, or 3% of the total land is now covered by urban or industrial construction. Such areas support few species and construction affects biodiversity directly through the complete destruction of natural habitats. In addition, areas in the vicinity of construction work are affected by habitat degradation and by long-term damage with construction wastes that are not properly removed.

Transport

The transport system in Armenia is extensive, covering 800km of rail track and 13,000km of roads. Transport systems affect biodiversity in a number of ways:

· Destruction of natural habitats during construction.
· Degradation of surrounding habitats.
· Pollution (local and air pollution).
· Barrier to dispersal resulting in fragmentation of populations.
· Direct mortality of wildlife.

One of the major issues is the effect of pollutants, including nictric and carbon oxides, on wildlife. Vehicle emissions are a major contributor to pollution in Armenia, representing 94% of total emissions (an increase from 67% of emissions in 1987). In particular, exhaust fumes contain oxides of nitrogen and carbon (Table 2.10), which contribute both to local pollution of natural ecosystems, and to global warming. At present laws regulate several pollutants in vehicle emissions, however overall assessments of pollution from road transport are difficult to quantify accurately from the data available.

Table 2.10 Annual estimates for vehicle emissions

(based on data from the State Registry)

Tourism and recreation
The landscapes and biodiversity of Armenia have been a focus for tourism and recreation use over a number of decades, but this has intensified significantly over the last few years. By the end of the 1980s over 110 sanatoria and guest houses were operating, supporting more than 600,000 customers. In addition 200 summer camps for children existed, and 30 tourist centres, with 6000 places, were operational, along with approximately 10 tour routes. In the last few years recreational activities have increased dramatically, however many are improperlmanaged and result in damage to biodiversity and to natural sites. Damage includes:

· Direct destruction of vegetation.
· Trampling.
· Over-use of water and other resources.
· Littering and increased waste production.

Unsustainable harvesting of wild species
Unsustainable collection of wild plants and hunting of animals by the local population has affected a number of species and habitats in Armenia. Although few figures are available, concern is expressed about over-collection of plants of edible, medicinal or decorative use, capture of snakes for their venom, and poaching of Armenian mouflon, and other big mammals. As a result of such harvesting, declines have been noted in a number of species, and semi-desert, forest and meadow ecosystems have been degraded.