· Parasites and pathogens. Micromycetes recorded in Armenia include a large number of parasitic and pathogenic forms (125 species of Peronosporales and 395 species of Hyphales). Other groups include rust fungi (Uredinales; 255 species) which cause crop damage, and powdery mildews (Erysiphales; 115 species). A further 550 species of saprophytic and parasitic fungi are recorded (Sphaeropsidales).

· Soil fungi. Many micromycetes occur in soil (541 species) and some have important medicinal use (e.g. Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium).

· Aquatic fungi. Fungi have an important ecological role in the water bodies of Armenia. Some species act as parasites on fish, but most contribute to bio-degradation, and thus in maintaining water quality. About 200 species of aquatic fungi have been described (mostly belonging to the genera Achlya, Anguillospora, Blastocladia, Clavariopsis, Saprolegnia, Tetracladium and Tricladium), in lakes with different altitudes, aspects and pollution levels.

· Toxic fungi. Of particular importance are micromycetes that pollute foodstuffs and produce toxins (including species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria).

· Predatory fungi. Around 25 species of predatorious fungi are found in Armenia, the most widely spread being species of Arthrobotrys.

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A total of 1182 species of macromycetes are recorded in Armenia (Table 2.4), including 284 species of edible fungi (mushrooms). Many edible species are in the genus Agaricus (such as A. campestris and A. bisporus). Other important edible species are Pleurotus ostreatus, Suillus granulatus, Lepista personata, Lactarius deliciosus. In addition, a further 59 species of poisonous fungi have been recorded (including Amanita phalloides, A. pantherina, Hypholoma fasciculare, Inocybe spp. and Cortinarius spp.).

Table 2.4 The diversity of macromycetes found in Armenia in relation to different taxonomic levels

There are three main ecological niches filled by macromycetes - parasites, symbiotrophs and saprotrophs. The more common saprotrophic fungi are summarised in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Numbers and examples of fungi organised by substrate

Lichens are a widespread group, with over 26,000 species recorded worldwide from all major ecosystems (from deserts to alpine tundra). However, lichens have not been particularly well studied in Armenia, with most work conducted in the Lake Sevan watershed. Around 300 species have been described in Armenia (of which 190 are from the vicinity of Lake Sevan). Most of the lichens described are of a crust form (40%), which typically grow on rock. Other described forms are foliate, fructate and umbilicate. Lichens are found on a range of substrates including rocks, trees, soil, moss and as parasites (Table 2.6). Although lichens are not considered to be of economic importance in Armenia, some species could be used as a source of antibiotics and as environmental indicators of air quality. Further work is needed to document lichens, and to determine their conservation status, and appropriate Red Data Book listings.

Mosses are relatively simple plants, with a wide distribution, but generally associated with damp areas. Globally, around 25,000 species of moss have been described, of which 430 species have been recorded in Armenia, mainly in mountain and forest habitats. Of these, around 108 species are considered to be rare (including: Dicranoweisia intermedia, Orthotrichum urnaceum, Antitrichia curtipendula, Pterogonium gracile, and Lindbergia brachyptera), but are not currently included in the Red Data Book. Of particular importance is the occurrence of Sphagnum moss (a glacial relict) at four wetland sites.

Table 2.6 Examples of lichen species associated with different substrates

Most groups of higher plants are represented in Armenia (Table 2.7), including peat-moss, horse-tails, ferns, gymnosperms (open-seed flowering plants) and angiosperms (closed seed flowering plants). A brief overview of each of these groups is presented below.

Table 2.7 Number of species of different groups of higher plants found in Armenia

· Peat-mosses. In Armenia only Selaginella helvetica occurs in sub-alpine meadow wetlands in the north-east of the country.

· Horse-tails. Six species of horsetails are found in Armenia, mainly in relatively damp areas in forests, river valleys and shorelines. The most common species are Equisetum arvense, E. palustre, and E. ramosissimum, and although of no commercial use, many were used for traditional medicine.

· Ferns. Of the 10,000 species of ferns described globally, a total of 38 species of ferns are found in Armenia, the most common species include male fern (Dryopteris filix-mas), Ophioglossum vulgatum, Cystopteris fragilis, Polypodium vulgare, Athyrium filix feminum, Asplenium spp. and Trichomanes spp. Compared with other groups of higher plants ferns have limited economic value, although they do have some decorative, edible and medicinal uses.

· Gymnosperms. Of some 600 species of gymnosperms described world-wide, only nine species are recorded in Armenia, including some introduced species. Genera represented include juniper (Juniperus; 5 species), pine (Pinus; 1 species), yew (Taxus; 1 species) and Ephedra (2 species).

· Angiosperms. These are the most diverse and abundant group of higher plants in Armenia, and represent almost 50% of the overall flora of the Caucasus. More than 3500 species of higher vascular plants of 200 families grow in Armenia, in total covering approximately 30,000 km 2 of the land surface of the country. As well as common temperate zone species, a number of endemic and relict forms, with restricted distributions, are found (Chapter 3). In addition, there is high diversity among cultivated species (Chapter 4). The diversity of plants found in Armenia reflects not just its bio-geographical position, but the range of landscapes and habitats represented in the country.

A total of 417 plant species (of 67 families) are known to occur in the rivers and lakes of Armenia. Most of these (58%, 246 species) belong to ten plant families (Table 2.8). Not surprisingly, plant families associated with water or damp sites are particularly well represented in this flora (Cyperaceae and Potamogetonaceae).

Table 2.8 Key families of aquatic plants in Armenia, and the number of species recorded in each family

In general, relatively few aquatic plants are found in the rivers and lakes of high mountains (only 10% of the aquatic flora is recorded above 2700m), most are found at mid- (1200-2700m) or low- (<1200 m) altitude (50% and 40% of the flora, respectively). Studies of the distribution of aquatic plants in Armenia have identified some key sites for these plants:

· Lakes of mid-altitude and in steppes are particularly rich in water and marshland plants.
· Many rare species (such as Nymphaea alba, Salvinia natans, and Carex bhemica) are found in the relict lowlands lakes in Lori region.
· The Metsamor (Sevajur) river supports many aquatic and marshland species, including nationally and regionally rare species. This is partly explained by its high water quality and slow speed.
· The Lake Sevan basin supports flowering water plants in its upper waters (above 6 m), while algae flourish at greater depths.
· Despite the large-scale drainage and destruction of marshland in vicinity in Lake Sevan, some populations of reeds, rushes, (Juncus), reed mace (Typha) and sedge (Carex) can still be found close to springs and emerging groundwater.
· A limited number of aquatic plants are found in forest lakes. Ponds in shady woodlands (such as those of beech and oak) tend to be dominated by algal blooms, and where flowering aquatic plants do occur, their cover is relative sparse.