Over geological time the biological wealth of the Republic
of Armenia has been well represented in the fossil record.
The area is rich in fossils including woody plants dating
from the upper Cretaceous period (including pine, plane and
poplar). Miocene sedimentary rocks have revealed information
on the trees of that time (including spruce, fir, cedar, walnut,
oak, chestnut, birch, horn-beam, ash, and lime). Of a total
of 169 fossil tree species (representing 85 genera and 44
families) from different geological periods, 47 currently
exist in the country. Most of the current flora species evolved
during the Miocene, representing the basic vegetation cover
and forests.
A series of climatic modifications have played an important
role in determining the current landscapes, ecosystems and
biodiversity of Armenia. Changes in vegetation coincided with
continentalization of climate during the Pliocene, when plants
of the more humid sub-tropics were gradually replaced with
more tolerant and deciduous plants, such as Greek walnut (Juglans
regia), Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), and Georgian pine
(Pinus kochiana). However, in particular areas, relicts of
the earlier flora remained, such as Oriental pine (Pinus spp.)
and yew (Taxus baccata). At this time forests were superceded
by vegetation dominated by xerophytes. During the later Pliocene
and Pleistocene a series of glaciations occurred in the Caucasus,
which affected the existing ecosystems, resulting in reductions
in primary sub-tropical forests, and growth in secondary habitats
typical of the temperate zone. At this time some boreal forest
species appeared, including birch (Betula pendula), service-tree
(Sorbus aucuparia) and bird cherry (Prunus padus). After glaciation
the flora became further dominated by xerophytes, as more
arid-zone habitats emerged.
It appears that vegetational shifts during the Pliocene were
accompanied by the immigration of arid-zone faunas, perhaps
from Iran, thus accounting for the unique vertebrate and invertebrate
fauna currently found in the Arax Valley. At the same time,
reptiles of European origin, such as the meadow viper (Vipera
ursini), grass snake (Natrix natrix), sand lizard (Lacerta
agilis), and meadow lizard (L. praticola) also migrated into
Armenia. It appears that a number of reptiles may also have
reached Armenia from the Middle Asian deserts, including the
race runner (Eremias arguta), pond turtle (Clemmys caspicas),
and toadhead agama (Phrynocephalus persicus). During the glaciations,
some relict populations of fauna in northern Armenia appear
to have survived in forest refugia which were not under ice.
The evolution of fish in Armenia has followed a pattern similar
to that shown by terrestrial species. The composition of fish
species changed during glaciations as species reliant on warm
conditions were lost from high altitude lakes, streams and
rivers. Although such species later reinvaded rivers upstream
(such as the rivers Arax and Kur) they failed to reenter lakes
which had since become isolated from such river systems. The
fish isolated in lakes have thus evolved into a series of
endemic species and sub-species (including trout, 'koghak'
and others).
Armenia's position at the junction of biographic zones is
also clearly demonstrated through its birdlife, which includes
representatives of European and Asian avian faunas. The country
also lies on bird migration routes of international importance.
Typically the bird fauna in the north of the country is most
similar to European and Caucasian faunas, while that in the
south is more similar to those found in Iran, north Africa,
the Mediterranean, the Caspian, and Asia Minor.
In more recent years, mid-zone forests have declined substantially,
while dry mountain forests, steppes, and scrubby woodland
in arid zones, and their associated fauna, have expanded.
Human activities have severely affected the ecosystems and
biodiversity of Armenia, resulting in the decline and extinction
of a number of plant and animal species.
Armenia has a long history of the use of microbes for the production of food and
medicines. Excavations indicate the production of foodstuffs reliant on fermentation
(cheese, beer, wine) as early as the 8th-7th centuries BC (Teishebaini, Urartu).
The development of the science of microbiology in the late 19th century, led to
extensive research in Armenia, particularly in relation to yoghurt production (matsoon).
During this century, micro-organisms from soil, foodstuffs, fermentation, and other
sources have been extensively studied in Armenia, by national and foreign scientists,
resulting in the documentation of many new species and types, some of which have
important commercial uses.
The botanical resources of Armenia, and their use, have been
studied since the 15th century (A. Amasiatzi), with more extensive
inventories, basic vegetation assessments and detailed studies
of herbal use being made in the 19th century (e.g. Radde,
Grinevetski, Shamiramyan). Vegetation mapping and geo-botanical
studies have been carried out since the 1920-30s, starting
with an inventory of pastures and rangelands. Since then a
number of distinct floristic regions have been determined,
and vegetation of all the main habitat types has been studied
to some extent. Furthermore the distribution and chemical
composition of plants of industrial and commercial value were
also investigated.
At present all groups of Armenian flora (lower and higher
plants) are not equally well known - the best studied being
fungi and flowering plants. As the result of extensive research
a seven volume work was published documenting fungi and related
groups ('The Mycoflora of Armenia'). However, this was not
exhaustive and a further three volumes are still to be published
on studies of other fungal groups. Extensive studies of higher
vascular plants have been carried out since the 1950s (the
work of A. Takhtadjian), and have culminated in the production
of nine volumes documenting dicotyledonous vascular plants
('The Flora of Armenia'). A further two volumes on monocotyledons
will soon be published. However, in comparison to these two
groups, other flora are less well studied.
Although records of the animals of Armenia date back to the
4th century AD, and have been described by national and foreign
naturalists since then, the first systematic study of the
fauna of the region was published in 1841 ('The Fauna of Caspio-Caucasica',
Eichvald). Indeed, until the Soviet era most of the extensive
zoological surveys were conducted by foreigners.
This changed in the 1930s, through the work of one of the
founders of zoological study in Armenia, A. Shelkovnikov.
His work resulted in monographs devoted to various insects
and birds. Further zoological studies followed, including
the publication of 'The Fauna of Armenia' in 1954 (S. Dal),
and work on herpetology (in particular, parthogenesis in lizards).
Since the 1950s zoological research has continued on various
groups (including molluscs, arachnids, beetles, ticks, amphibians,
reptiles, and birds), with studies focusing on their taxonomy,
zoogeography, ecology and behavior, as well as issues relating
to their conservation.
Although knowledge of plant and animal breeding dates back
many centuries (see Chapter 4), it was during the 19th and
early 20th centuries that systematic research into the diversity
of cultivars and of native breeds of livestock started (including
the work of Vavilov and Tamamshian). A number of scientists
have worked on crop diversity, studying issues such as genetic
diversity within and between varieties, identification of
varieties, wild relatives, and their natural habitats. These
studies have aided the development of new varieties, and a
series of high-yield crops have been produced. Such research
and plant breeding still continues today.
|
